The Tactics of Persuasion

Persuasion, according to Aristotle, is made up of three components: ethos (credibility), logos (logic or evidence), and pathos (emotion). Carmine Gallo, Harvard professor and author, affirmed the validity of this equation in a Knowledge@Wharton interview. “What’s fascinating, and the competitive advantage that I talk about, is that the ancient brain, the primitive brain, has not changed. The way we like to communicate, the way we process information through the vehicle of story, through emotions, through empathy—those things have not changed since the beginning of time. That’s why I call ‘mastering the ancient art of persuasion’ a competitive skill,” he said. 

While the art of persuasion has not changed significantly over time, there’s new research that sheds light on the science. Jonah Berger, a Wharton marketing professor and author of Magic Words, studies how language drives outcomes and how various communications tactics can lead to increased sales, satisfaction, and/or engagement. 

We’ve rounded up some of his findings below:

Default to the present tense, when possible. Using active voice makes you sound more confident and increases your influence.  “Let's talk about past tense for a second. If someone said, ‘That book had a great plot,’ ‘France was fun,’ or ‘This product won an award,’ it suggests that this particular person liked the book when they read it, or they enjoyed France when they visited,” Berger said on a Knowledge@Wharton podcast. “If you're willing to say not just that France was fun, but it is fun; not just that this book had a great plot, but it has a great plot…it suggests you're more confident or certain about what you're saying. As a result, people are more likely to follow up on your opinion and be persuaded.”

Don’t hedge (And, if you must, own it). You already know to avoid filler language (umms and ahhs), but Berger also recommends incorporating “certainty” language. In the Wall Street Journal, Berger wrote, “When people speak with certainty, we’re more likely to think they’re right.” However, most of us default to “hedging” language, such as “that might work” or “this could be a strong plan,” which makes others less likely to take our advice. If you must hedge, Berger’s research shows that adding a personal pronoun to the statement increases how confident you sound. Try: “I believe that this plan could work” or “Seems like a great idea to me.” This connects you more closely with the idea, which makes your statement more convincing.

Deploy concrete language intentionally. Berger’s findings show that concrete language is most effective in making someone feel heard and/or resolving an issue, keeping a reader engaged in a longer-form content piece, or improving audience comprehension. “A service representative answering a request to find a pair of shoes, for example, could say that they would go look for them, those shoes, or those lime green Nikes. Those lime green Nikes is more concrete. The words used are more specific, tangible, and real. These variations might seem like simple turns of phrase, but they had an important impact on how customers felt about the interaction,” Berger said.  

Make it about identity. On the surface, asking someone to vote versus asking someone to be a voter doesn’t seem all that different. And yet, a 2011 research study out of Stanford University found a 15 percent increase in voting among adults asked to be “voters” rather than to “vote” in an election. In an interview with Entrepreneur, Berger describes why appealing to identity is so persuasive. “Category labels often imply a degree of permanence and stability,” he said. “Rather than noting what someone did or does, feels or felt, category labels hint at a deeper essence: Who someone is.”

Choose your words wisely and take note of how they’re received. Berger’s research shows that some “magic words” create impact where others do not. In the Wall Street Journal, he wrote, “Sometimes it’s just one word that makes a difference. Research that my colleague and I published in 2017, for example, found that saying you “recommend” rather than ‘like’ something makes people 32 percent more likely to take your suggestion. Other words operate more like gateways: A study published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology found that adding the word ‘because’ to a request, followed by the reason for it, increased compliance by 50 percent.” 

Finally, don’t forget to notice how your language impacts others and adjust accordingly. That’s what ultimately drives effectiveness.

What We’re Getting Wrong About Making a Good First Impression

We’ll start with the good news and then get to the even-better news. 

The good news: You make a better first impression than you think you do. You know those moments after you meet someone, when you cringe over your potential awkwardness? Research shows that you don’t need to do that. The person you just met liked you and enjoyed your conversation much more than you think. 

In 2018, Erica Boothby, in partnership with other researchers, Gus Cooney, Gillian Sandstrom, and Margaret Clark, set out to understand how well people do at gauging their own likeability. The research study looked at pairs of people who were meeting for the first time in three different settings: a research lab, as attendees of a personal development workshop, and as first year dorm roommates. After the meetings, both participants were surveyed on how much they enjoyed the interaction and liked the other person and how much they believed the other person liked them. The finding, in short: People are more likeable than they think.

Routinely, participants underestimated how positively their counterparts rated the interaction. The researchers called the difference between a person’s estimation of how much another liked them and the reality, the “liking gap.” Notably the liking gap remained over several months, as demonstrated by the roommates included in the study, and was the most pronounced amongst those who considered themselves shy, although it occurred across personality types. 

It might not surprise you that the liking gap stems from our natural tendency to fixate on our own perceived errors. The study’s authors wrote, “the liking gap exists not because people fail to signal that they like each other—in fact, the signals are right there for people to see—but, rather, people are too focused on their own self-critical thoughts to notice.” 

According to the research, when we conclude an interaction, we immediately start evaluating ourselves. The study found that “people tend to compare themselves unfavorably with their ideal version of themselves…ruminate about the worst possible outcomes…and focus on the things they need to fix for next time.” 

If we were to set this scenario at the workplace, you might think you came off as less informed about a project than you are, or that you seemed smug about your accomplishments, or worry that you blathered on about an unimportant detail. 

It’s hard for us to see that others don’t have this same perspective on our faults, Boothby et al wrote. What we must remember is that not only are the people we meet not comparing us to an ideal, but they’re likely also cataloging their own perceived shortcomings. 

Curious about the liking gap in the workplace and team interactions specifically, researchers performed a follow-up study. It confirmed that not only does the liking gap exist within organizations and teams, but it was, “strongly related to a range of important interpersonal, team and job-level outcomes.” These included a person’s willingness to ask for help and their comfort in communicating openly and honestly, which impact a person’s job satisfaction and effectiveness in their role. The study’s authors wrote, “The liking gap predicts important workplace outcomes... If only people knew, then, how positively their teammates actually felt about them, they might communicate better, feel more included on their teams, and be happier overall with their jobs.”

Easing the Effects of the Liking Gap 

Which brings us to the “even-better” news promised earlier: Your awareness of the liking gap is a powerful tool. 

By giving yourself a pass on perfection and opting not to fixate on your flaws or slips, you can rest-assured that your first impression (or early impression) was, in all likelihood, good enough. In addition to this info making you feel more confident, you can use it to develop relationships more effectively. 

In an interview with CNBC, Boothby suggested easing the effects of the liking gap in the workplace by taking action. If you appreciated your co-worker’s conversation over a coffee, or you enjoyed meeting someone at a networking event, don’t wait for them—reach out!  They too are likely underestimating how much you enjoyed the meeting and are hesitating on a next step because they feel vulnerable. 

Your actions don’t have to correspond to a special occasion, either. If you enjoy working with someone or a group of people, tell them directly. Providing them with clear indicators that you appreciate their company and work, and you wish to continue developing the relationship, will make them feel seen.

Furthermore, during future interactions, try being more attuned to your partners, rather than fixated on your own perceived flaws. First, consider the signals that they are sending: Are they nodding? Smiling? Are they appearing open or physically closed off? What indirect signs are they providing about how they’re perceiving you or the conversation? Second, make sure you approach the conversation with genuine curiosity and interest.  

Boothby, as a guest on The Hidden Brain podcast, described the power of asking follow-up questions in conversation. She said, “The research on social anxiety shows that if you go into a conversation with the goal of learning as much about your partner as possible, that shifts your attention from being focused on your own thoughts and what you might be doing wrong, toward being focused on your conversation partner.” 

Understanding the liking gap—and actively closing it for others—makes for more meaningful connections.